Online and offline dating violence: same same, but different?

BACKGROUND: Violent behaviors in romantic relationships among adolescents and young people are pressing social matter as they have an effect on both victims and aggressors. Moreover, in the last decades, new forms of harassment, control, and abuse through social networks and mobile phones have arisen. Therefore, now forms of online and offline dating violence coexist. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to analyze the prevalence rates by sex and age and the co-occurrence of online and offline dating violence. Moreover, the roles of online and offline dating violence aggressors and victims for their self-esteem, hostility, general psychological state, and emotional intelligence were investigated. METHOD: Three hundred forty-one university students from the Basque Country, Spain, participated in the study. They completed six validated instruments related to the mentioned variables. RESULTS: Results highlight the high prevalence of online and offline dating violence in the sample and the co-occurrence of both types. No gender nor sex differences were found for online and offline dating violence perpetration and victimization. The correlation between online and offline dating violence was confirmed, and the reciprocity of violence is greater for offline violence. In relation to the role, both types of victims (online and offline) showed higher levels of hostility and psychological symptomatology than non-victims, but differences in self-esteem and emotional regulation were found in these modalities. Online and offline perpetrators shared hostility and some psychological symptoms as characteristics compared to non-victims, but differed in other symptoms and emotional intelligence. CONCLUSION: There is a continuum between offline and online victimization perpetration albeit differences in the characteristics such as self-esteem, emotional intelligence, and general functioning exist.

Individual and Contextual Correlates of Latent Bystander Profiles toward Racist Hate Speech: A Multilevel Person-centered Approach.

Prior research into bystander responses to hate speech has utilized variable-centered analyses - such approaches risk simplifying the complex nature of bystander behaviors. Hence, the present study used a person-centered analysis to investigate latent hate speech bystander profiles. In addition, individual and classroom-level correlates associated with the various profiles were studied. The sample included 3225 students in grades 7-9 (51.7% self-identified as female; 37.2% with immigrant background) from 215 classrooms in Germany and Switzerland. The latent profile analysis revealed that four distinct profiles could be distinguished: Passive Bystanders (34.2%), Defenders (47.3%), Revengers (9.8%), and Contributors (8.6%). Multilevel logistic regression models showed common and distinct correlates. For example, students who believed that certain social groups are superior were more likely to be Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders, students who felt more connected with teachers were more likely to be Defenders, and students who were more open to diversity were less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. Students were less likely Defenders and more likely Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders in classrooms with high rates of hate speech perpetration. Further, in classrooms with high hate speech intervention, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In classrooms with stronger cohesion, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In conclusion, the findings add to our understanding of bystander profiles concerning racist hate speech and the relevance of individual and classroom-level factors in explaining various profiles of bystander behavior.

Longitudinal Associations between Different Types of Sexting, Adolescent Mental Health, and Sexual Risk Behaviors: Moderating Effects of Gender, Ethnicity, Disability Status, and Sexual Minority Status.

The present study investigated the moderating effect of adolescent demographic variables in the longitudinal associations among different types of sexting, mental health (i.e., depression, self-harm, subjective health complaints), and sexual risk behaviors. There were 1113 adolescents (ages 14-17 years; Mage = 16.36; SDage = .81; 50% female) from six high schools located in the United States included in this study. Adolescents completed questionnaires on their sexting behaviors, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors during the ninth grade; in tenth grade, they completed questionnaires on mental health and sexual risk behaviors. Non-consensual sexting and pressured sexting were both related positively to each of the mental health variables and sexual risk behaviors. The relationship between non-consensual sexting and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and sexual minorities. Similar patterns were found for pressured sexting, non-suicidal self-harm, and subjective health complaints. The relationships between pressured sexting and sexual risk behaviors were stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and those who identified as sexual minorities. Research focused on the relationships among different types of sexting, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors is important as such research facilitates the development of evidence-based recommendations for sexting harm prevention and sexual education programs.

Direct and indirect effects of social dominance orientation on hate speech perpetration via empathy and moral disengagement among adolescents: A multilevel mediation model.

Although it is known that social dominance orientation directly affects hate speech perpetration, few studies have explored the mechanisms by which this effect takes place during adolescence. Based on the socio-cognitive theory of moral agency, we aimed to fill this gap in the literature by exploring the direct and indirect effects of social dominance orientation on hate speech perpetration in offline and online settings. The sample included seventh, eigth, and ninth graders (N = 3225) (51.2% girls, 37.2% with an immigrant background) from 36 Swiss and German schools who completed a survey about hate speech, social dominance orientation, empathy, and moral disengagement. A multilevel mediation path model revealed that social dominance orientation had a direct effect on offline and online hate speech perpetration. Moreover, social dominance also had indirect effects via low levels of empathy and high levels of moral disengagement. No gender differences were observed. Our findings are discussed regarding the potential contribution to preventing hate speech during adolescence.

Validation of the multidimensional bystander responses to racist hate speech scale and its association with empathy and moral disengagement among adolescents.

Our understanding of how bystanders respond to hate speech is limited. This may be due, in part, to the lack of available measurement tools. However, understanding adolescents' responses to hate speech is critical because this kind of research can support schools in empowering students to exhibit courageous moral behavior. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the newly developed Multidimensional Bystander Responses to Hate Speech Scale (MBRHS) and to explore demographic differences and correlates of bystander behavior in school hate speech. The sample consisted of 3225 seventh to ninth graders from Germany and Switzerland. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a model with seven factors. We found that adolescents with immigrant background and boys showed particularly unfavorable response patterns. In addition, our study suggests that empathy is positively correlated with the factors comforting the victim, seeking help at school, and countering hate speech but negatively correlated with helplessness, revenge, reinforcing, and ignoring. Moral disengagement showed the opposite correlational pattern. The findings indicate that the MBRHS is a psychometrically valid and reliable measure that could aid in measuring varied responses to hate speech. In addition, this work highlights the relevance of empathy and moral engagement training in anti-hate speech prevention programs.

Stability of the online grooming victimization of minors: Prevalence and association with shame, guilt, and mental health outcomes over one year.

INTRODUCTION: Online grooming is the process by which an adult manipulates a minor by using information and communication technologies to interact sexually with that minor. The objective of this study was to analyze the stability of online grooming victimization among minors and its relationship with demographic variables (e.g., gender, age, and sexual orientation), emotions of shame and guilt, and depression and anxiety symptoms. METHODS: The participants were 746 adolescents aged 12-14 years when the study started (Mage = 13.34, SD = 0.87) who completed self-reports at Time 1 (T1) and 1 year later at Time 2 (T2). Among them, 400 were girls, 344 were boys, and two were nonbinary. At each time point, the minors self-reported their online grooming experiences during the previous year. RESULTS: The results showed that 11.8% (n = 89) of the participants were T1-victims, 13% (n = 95) were T2-victims, and 11% (n = 81) were stable victims of online grooming. Stability in victimization was related to being older, being a sexual minority, being born abroad, having separated or divorced parents, and having parents with a lower education level. Stable victims showed higher shame and guilt scores at T1 than did T1-victims, indicating that elevated levels of shame and guilt could contribute to the persistence of online grooming over time. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, adolescents in the stable victim category presented more depression and anxiety symptoms. Intervention strategies should address emotions related to victimization, such as shame and guilt, as well as depression and anxiety symptoms.

The relation of classroom climate to adolescents' countering hate speech via social skills: A positive youth development perspective.

INTRODUCTION: Hate speech is a current challenge for schools around the globe. At the same time, students worldwide stand up to hate speech by countering it. Guided by a positive youth development perspective, the present study investigated the direct and indirect associations between classroom climate (environmental assets), social skills (personal assets), and countering hate speech (as a proxy of thriving) among adolescents. METHODS: The sample included 3225 students in grades 7-9 (51.7% self-identified as female) from 40 schools in Germany (n = 1841) and Switzerland (n = 1384). Students completed self-report questionnaires that assessed classroom climate, three facets of social skills (i.e., perspective-taking, prosocial behavior, assertiveness), and counterspeech. RESULTS: The results of the 2-(1-1-1)-1 multilevel mediation analysis revealed that classroom climate (L2) and the three facets of social skills (L1) had a direct positive effect on counterspeech (L1). Furthermore, classroom climate (L2) also had a direct positive effect on the three facets of social skills (L1). Finally, classroom climate (L2) had an indirect positive effect on counterspeech (L1) via all three aspects of social skills (L1). CONCLUSION: The findings highlight that successful anti-hate speech programs may entail a combination of environmental and personal factors for increasing adolescents' active contribution to an inclusive and discrimination-free classroom environment where hate speech is not tolerated.

Cyberbullying Involvement and Depression among Elementary School, Middle School, High School, and University Students: The Role of Social Support and Gender.

One aim of this study was to investigate differences in cyberbullying involvement (i.e., victimization, bystanding, perpetration) across four age groups, including 234 elementary school students (4th and 5th grades; 51% female), 363 middle school students (6th through 8th grades; 53% female), 341 high school students (9th through 12th grade; 51% female), and 371 university students (all four years; 60% female). Another aim was to examine the age group differences in the associations between cyberbullying involvement and depression, as well as the moderating effect of social support from parents and friends. Participants completed questionnaires on cyberbullying involvement, depression, and social support from parents and friends. Findings revealed that middle school students were more often involved in cyberbullying as victims, bystanders, and perpetrators, followed by high school and university students, and elementary school students. High school and university students did not differ on their cyberbullying involvement. Gender moderated these relationships for elementary school students, with boys more often involved in cyberbullying perpetration and victimization than girls. In addition, female university students witnessed cyberbullying more so than males. Social support from parents buffered against the negative effects of cyberbullying involvement on depression across all age groups. Results were similar for social support from friends, but only for middle school and high school students. Gender did not influence the associations among age groups, cyberbullying involvement, and depression. The results have implications for designing prevention and intervention programs and ensuring that such programs consider age.

Effects of the Prevention Program "HateLess. Together against Hatred" on Adolescents' Empathy, Self-efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech.

Currently, there is a lack of empirically evaluated prevention programs targeting hate speech among adolescents. This is problematic because hate speech jeopardizes adolescents' well-being and social integration. To this end, this study aims to evaluate the short-term effects of the newly developed anti-hate speech prevention program, "HateLess. Together against Hatred", on adolescents' empathy, self-efficacy, and counter-speech. Eight hundred and twenty adolescents between 12 and 16 (M = 13.27, SD = 1.04) from 11 German schools participated in this study. More specifically, 567 adolescents participated in the one-week prevention program, and 253 participants were assigned to the control group. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed that HateLess was successful, as there was a significant increase in empathy, self-efficacy, and counter-speech in the intervention group from the pretest (T1) to the posttest (T2) one month after the intervention. In contrast, no changes were found among adolescents in the control group. A multilevel mediation model revealed that the effect of being a member of the intervention group on counter-speech was partially mediated via empathy and self-efficacy. The findings indicate that HateLess is an effective, cost-efficient approach to enhance adolescents' counter-speech directly and indirectly by altering the skills they need to become informed citizens in democratic societies.

A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena.

Little is known about the current state of research on the involvement of young people in hate speech. Thus, this systematic review presents findings on a) the prevalence of hate speech among children and adolescents and on hate speech definitions that guide prevalence assessments for this population; and b) the theoretical and empirical overlap of hate speech with related concepts. This review was guided by the Cochrane approach. To be included, publications were required to deal with real-life experiences of hate speech, to provide empirical data on prevalence for samples aged 5 to 21 years and they had to be published in academic formats. Included publications were full-text coded using two raters (κ = .80) and their quality was assessed. The string-guided electronic search (ERIC, SocInfo, Psycinfo, Psyndex) yielded 1,850 publications. Eighteen publications based on 10 studies met the inclusion criteria and their findings were systematized. Twelve publications were of medium quality due to minor deficiencies in their theoretical or methodological foundations. All studies used samples of adolescents and none of younger children. Nine out of 10 studies applied quantitative methodologies. Eighteen publications based on 10 studies were included. Results showed that frequencies for hate speech exposure were higher than those related to victimization and perpetration. Definitions of hate speech and assessment instruments were heterogeneous. Empirical evidence for an often theorized overlap between hate speech and bullying was found. The paper concludes by presenting a definition of hate speech, including implications for practice, policy, and research.

Associations Between Classroom Climate, Empathy, Self-Efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech Among Adolescents: A Multilevel Mediation Analysis.

Although hate speech is widely recognized as an online phenomenon, very few studies have investigated hate speech among adolescents in offline settings (e.g., schools). At the same time, not much is known about countering hate speech (counterspeech) among adolescents and which factors are associated with it. To this end, the present study used the socio-ecological framework to investigate the direct and indirect links among one contextual factor (i.e., classroom climate) and two intrapersonal factors (i.e., empathy for victims of hate speech, self-efficacy regarding intervention in hate speech) to understand counterspeech among adolescents. The sample is based on self-reports of 3,225 students in Grades 7 to 9 (51.7% self-identified as female) from 36 schools in Germany and Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure classroom climate, empathy, self-efficacy, and counterspeech. After controlling for adolescents' grade, gender, immigrant background, and socioeconomic status (SES), the 2-(1-1)-1 multilevel mediation analysis showed that classroom climate (L2), empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1) had a positive effect on countering hate speech (L1). Classroom climate (L2) was also positively linked to empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1). Furthermore, classroom climate (L2) was indirectly associated with countering hate speech (L1) via greater empathy (L1) and self-efficacy (L1). The findings highlight the need to focus on contextual and intrapersonal factors when trying to facilitate adolescents' willingness to face hate speech with civic courage and proactively engage against it.

[Is this (already) hate speech?-A qualitative study on the understanding of hate speech among educational school staff]. / Ist das (schon) Hatespeech? ­ Eine qualitative Untersuchung zum Verständnis von Hatespeech unter pädagogischem Schulpersonal.

Hate speech is a social phenomenon that also affects the school environment. However, what school staff understands by hate speech is unclear, and therefore, the objective of the present interview study with teachers (n = 18) and social pedagogues (n = 16). The results showed that hate speech is understood as the degradation of structurally oppressed groups (e.g., trans persons, homosexuals, Jewish people). Participants often did not recognize subtler forms of hate speech as a problem and understood hate speech primarily as an online phenomenon, even when incidents were reported in schools. It can be concluded that educational school staff needs to be sensitized to offline hate speech and subtler forms to increase their willingness to intervene.

Coping with Public and Private Face-to-Face and Cyber Victimization among Adolescents in Six Countries: Roles of Severity and Country.

This study investigated the role of medium (face-to-face, cyber) and publicity (public, private) in adolescents' perceptions of severity and coping strategies (i.e., avoidant, ignoring, helplessness, social support seeking, retaliation) for victimization, while accounting for gender and cultural values. There were 3432 adolescents (ages 11-15, 49% girls) in this study; they were from China, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, and the United States. Adolescents completed questionnaires on individualism and collectivism, and ratings of coping strategies and severity for public face-to-face victimization, private face-to-face victimization, public cyber victimization, and private cyber victimization. Findings revealed similarities in adolescents' coping strategies based on perceptions of severity, publicity, and medium for some coping strategies (i.e., social support seeking, retaliation) but differential associations for other coping strategies (i.e., avoidance, helplessness, ignoring). The results of this study are important for prevention and intervention efforts because they underscore the importance of teaching effective coping strategies to adolescents, and to consider how perceptions of severity, publicity, and medium might influence the implementation of these coping strategies.

Longitudinal Associations among Machiavellianism, Popularity Goals, and Adolescents' Cyberbullying Involvement: The Role of Gender.

Drawing on the social-ecological perspective, this longitudinal study investigated the potential moderating effect of gender in the relationships among Machiavellianism, popularity goals, and cyberbullying involvement (i.e. victimization, perpetration) among adolescents from China, Cyprus, India, and the United States. There were 2,452 adolescents (Mage = 14.85; SD = .53; 13-16 years old; 49.1% girls) from China, Cyprus, India, and the United States included in this study. They completed surveys on Machiavellianism, popularity goals, and cyberbullying victimization and perpetration during the fall of 2014 (Time 1). One year later, during the fall of 2015, adolescents completed surveys on cyberbullying victimization and perpetration. Findings revealed that Machiavellianism and popularity goals were both associated positively with Time 2 cyberbullying victimization and perpetration for all adolescents. The associations between Machiavellianism and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration and between popularity goals and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration were stronger for Chinese and Indian boys than girls. Opposite patterns were found for popularity goals and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration for adolescents from the United States. Gender did not moderate any of the associations for Cypriot adolescents or for Time 2 cyberbullying victimization. The social-ecological perspective provides a useful understanding of how various contexts influence bullying.

Racial Discrimination to Bullying Behavior among White and Black Adolescents in the USA: From Parents' Perspectives.

The present study proposes and tests pathways by which racial discrimination might be positively related to bullying victimization among Black and White adolescents. Data were derived from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health, a national survey that provides data on children's physical and mental health and their families. Data were collected from households with one or more children between June 2016 to February 2017. A letter was sent to randomly selected households, who were invited to participate in the survey. The caregivers consisted of 66.9% females and 33.1% males for the White sample, whose mean age was 47.51 (SD = 7.26), and 76.8% females and 23.2% males for the Black sample, whose mean age was 47.61 (SD = 9.71). In terms of the adolescents, 49.0% were females among the White sample, whose mean age was 14.73 (SD = 1.69). For Black adolescents, 47.9% were females and the mean age was 14.67(SD = 1.66). Measures for the study included bullying perpetration, racial discrimination, academic disengagement, and socio-demographic variables of the parent and child. Analyses included descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and structural path analyses. For adolescents in both racial groups, racial discrimination appears to be positively associated with depression, which was positively associated with bullying perpetration. For White adolescents, racial discrimination was positively associated with academic disengagement, which was also positively associated with bullying perpetration. For Black adolescents, although racial discrimination was not significantly associated with academic disengagement, academic disengagement was positively associated with bullying perpetration.

Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting ("revenge porn") among adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study is to develop a new measure of victimization and perpetration of two frequent forms of image-based sexual abuse, namely sextortion (i.e., the threat of distributing sexual images to pressure the victim into doing something) and nonconsensual sexting (i.e., distributing sexual images of someone without the consent of the victim). Additional aims were to analyze the prevalence of these forms of victimization and perpetration and to examine their temporal stability over a 1-year period. METHODS: The sample was made up of 1820 Spanish adolescents (mean age = 13.38, SD = 1.42; 929 girls, 878 boys, 3 nonbinary, and 10 did not indicate gender) who completed self-report instruments on image-based sexual abuse and related variables (e.g., cyberbullying victimization). RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis supported a structure composed of the four hypothesized factors: sextortion victimization and perpetration, and nonconsensual sexting victimization and perpetration. Higher sexting, cyberbullying victimization, and symptoms of depression and anxiety had stronger associations with image-based sexual victimization than with perpetration, which showed evidence of concurrent validity. Prevalence was 2.6% and 0.7% for sextortion victimization and perpetration, respectively, and 3.4% and 4.9% for nonconsensual sexting victimization and perpetration, respectively. Temporal stability over 1 year was .26 for sextortion victimization, .19 for nonconsensual sexting victimization, .33 for nonconsensual sexting perpetration (all ps < .001), and nonsignificant for sextortion perpetration. The stability of nonconsensual sexting victimization was significantly higher for girls compared to boys, whereas nonconsensual sexting perpetration was more stable over 1 year for boys. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies must advance the analysis of the predictors and consequences of image-based sexual abuse among adolescents to better prevent this problem. Prevalence of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting is not negligible, and these problems should be particularly addressed in prevention programs.

Associations between Coping Strategies and Cyberhate Involvement: Evidence from Adolescents across Three World Regions.

Cyberhate represents a risk to adolescents' development and peaceful coexistence in democratic societies. Yet, not much is known about the relationship between adolescents' ability to cope with cyberhate and their cyberhate involvement. To fill current gaps in the literature and inform the development of media education programs, the present study investigated various coping strategies in a hypothetical cyberhate scenario as correlates for being cyberhate victims, perpetrators, and both victim-perpetrators. The sample consisted of 6829 adolescents aged 12-18 years old (Mage = 14.93, SD = 1.64; girls: 50.4%, boys: 48.9%, and 0.7% did not indicate their gender) from Asia, Europe, and North America. Results showed that adolescents who endorsed distal advice or endorsed technical coping showed a lower likelihood to be victims, perpetrators, or victim-perpetrators. In contrast, if adolescents felt helpless or endorsed retaliation to cope with cyberhate, they showed higher odds of being involved in cyberhate as victims, perpetrators, or victim-perpetrators. Finally, adolescents who endorsed close support as a coping strategy showed a lower likelihood to be victim-perpetrators, and adolescents who endorsed assertive coping showed higher odds of being victims. In conclusion, the results confirm the importance of addressing adolescents' ability to deal with cyberhate to develop more tailored prevention approaches. More specifically, such initiatives should focus on adolescents who feel helpless or feel inclined to retaliate. In addition, adolescents should be educated to practice distal advice and technical coping when experiencing cyberhate. Implications for the design and instruction of evidence-based cyberhate prevention (e.g., online educational games, virtual learning environments) will be discussed.

Online Hate Speech Victimization and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents: The Protective Role of Resilience.

Online hate speech has become a widespread problem in the daily life of adolescents. Despite growing societal and academic interest in this online risk, not much is known about the relationship between online hate speech victimization (OHSV) and adolescents' mental well-being. In addition, potential factors influencing the magnitude of this relationship remain unclear. To address these gaps in the literature, this study investigated the relationship between OHSV and depressive symptoms and the buffering effects of resilience in this relationship. The sample consists of 1,632 adolescents (49.1% girls) between 12 and 18 years old (Mage = 13.83, SDage = 1.23), recruited from nine schools across Spain. Self-report questionnaires were administered to assess OHSV, depressive symptoms, and resilience. Regression analyses revealed that OHSV was positively linked to depressive symptoms. In addition, victims of online hate speech were less likely to report depressive symptoms when they reported average or high levels of resilience (i.e., social competence, personal competence, structured style, social resources, and family cohesion) compared with those with low levels of resilience. Our findings highlight the need for the development of intervention programs and the relevance of focusing on internal and external developmental assets to mitigate negative outcomes for victims of online hate speech.